The history of cartography is largely that of the increase in the accuracy with which these elements of distance and direction are determined and in the comprehensiveness of the map content. In this development, cartography has called in other sciences to its aid. For example, instead of determining direction by observing the position of a shadow at midday, or of a constellation in the night sky, or even of a steady wind, use was made of terrestrial magnetism through the magnetic compass, and instruments were evolved which enabled horizontal angles to be calculated with great accuracy. The application of astronomical concepts and the extension of the knowledge of the world through exploration encouraged attempts to map the known world. Then astronomers discovered that the earth is not a perfect sphere, but is flattened slightly at the poles, which introduced further refinements into the mapping of large areas. Meanwhile, the demands being made of the mapmaker were shifting significantly. The traveller or the merchant ceased to be the sole user of maps.

The soldier, especially after the introduction of artillery, and the problems of range, field of fire, and dead ground which it raised, demanded an accurate representation of the surface features, in place of the earlier conventional or pictorial delineation, and a solution in any degree satisfactory was not reached until the contour was invented. Then there was the archaeologist, the historian and, much later, the modern geographer, each with their own special requirements. In order to address these, the present-day cartographer has had to evolve methods of mapping all kinds of distributions, from geological strata and climatic regimes to land use. It is the present widespread recognition of the value of the map in the co-ordination and interpretation of phenomena in many sciences.